Portraits of Liberty

Olaudah Equiano: The Man Who Transformed the Abolitionist Movement Feb 04, 2025

Born in west Africa and kidnapped into slavery at age eleven, Olaudah Equiano endured the horrors of the Middle Passage before being sold to British and American masters. As an enslaved seaman, he traveled the world, gaining skills and knowledge that would later shape his abolitionist message. After purchasing his freedom, Equiano settled in London, where he became a leading voice against slavery. His autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, defied racist assumptions, advocating for economic prosperity through free trade rather than human bondage. By blending personal testimony with political and economic arguments, Equiano helped redefine abolitionist thought, paving the way for the eventual end of the transatlantic slave trade.

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Revisiting Frédéric Bastiat Jan 14, 2025

From his critique of state-controlled education in “Baccalaureate and Socialism,” to his extensive correspondence with free-trade advocate Richard Cobden, to his independent political career in a tumultuous France, Bastiat’s insights are still applicable today. In this episode, we explore his lesser-known works and his reflections on freedom, self-ownership, and the dangers of state intervention.

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The Father of the School of Salamanca: Francisco de Vitoria Dec 10, 2024

The 16th-century Dominican theologian Francisco de Vitoria has been hailed as the father of international law. Vitoria's teachings at the University of Salamanca shaped the foundation of modern natural law and human rights, from his pioneering defense of indigenous rights in the New World to his profound contributions to political theory.

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The Forgotten Austrian: Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk Nov 12, 2024

Born in 1851, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk distinguished himself as an economist, writing on theories of capital and interest. His work, Karl Marx and the Close of His System, remains one of the most thorough rebuttals of the labor theory of value. But beyond his work as an economist, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk put theory into practice as a statesman arguing against the rapid fiscal expansion of the Austrian state.

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The Law of Equal Freedom: Herbert Spencer Oct 08, 2024

Over his 60-year career, English philosopher Herbert Spencer discussed a myriad of topics, including ethics, political philosophy, sociology, and psychology. Central to his intellectual journey, however, was his exploration of evolution—a concept that shaped his vision for a freer world. Though his name may not be widely recognized today, Spencer was once one of the foremost advocates for liberalism across the globe.

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The German Economic “Miracle”: Ludwig Erhard Sep 10, 2024

Following World War II, Germany's economy was in ruins and was made even worse by ongoing price controls implemented by the state. Ludwig Erhard, an economist from a humble background, immediately abolished all price controls when elected director of economics in occupied Germany. The result is what economists and historians call an economic miracle, but what Erhard himself believed was the natural result of an economy freed from bureaucracy and state intervention.

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Redefining the Enlightenment: Namık Kemal (with Mustafa Akyol) Aug 13, 2024

An episode interviewing senior fellow Mustafa Akyol about the life and legacy of Namık Kemal, the Ottoman journalist and author. Born into the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century, Namık Kemal became a prolific journalist and reformer who advocated for constitutional government within the Ottoman Empire. His outlook was defined by his commitment to individual rights that are applied equally to everyone. Though exiled by the Ottoman state numerous times, Namık Kemal helped pave the way for constitutional government to take hold.

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Liberty Further Extended: Lemuel Haynes Jul 04, 2024

Born into poverty and indentured servitude, Lemuel Haynes became the most prominent black preacher of 18th-century America. He combined his experiences as a soldier of the American Revolution and a devout Calvinist to expound the philosophical principles of liberty. From the pulpit, he condemned slavery and upheld the principles of the American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence, that all men are created equal.

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The Violent Genesis of the State: Franz Oppenheimer Jun 18, 2024

Though obscure today, the German sociologist Franz Oppenheimer crafted a radical theory of the state. In his book The State, he argued that the state's origins were not in public justice or establishing laws but in the reign of a conquering group over their defeated foes. His work influenced libertarian theorists such as Albert Jay Nock, Walter Block, and Murray Rothbard.

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The Medieval Case Against Taxes: William of Pagula May 14, 2024

Despite its reputation as a dark age, the Medieval period was not devoid of intellectual substance. An example of this is William of Pagula, a 14th-century English priest and scholar who wrote The Mirror of King Edward III, a political treatise condemning the king's practice of purveyance and excessive taxation. Using a mixture of Biblical and Classical authorities, William made the moral case against interfering with property rights.

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No Superior and Few Equals: Elizabeth Freeman Apr 16, 2024

Born into slavery, Elizabeth Freeman gained her freedom in 1781, eighty years before the American Civil War. Freeman did not escape to Pennsylvania as was common at the time. She gained her freedom through the courts. Upon winning her case, she changed her name to Elizabeth Freeman to celebrate her new life.

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The Soldier Philosopher: Adam Ferguson Mar 28, 2024

Born between the Scottish Lowlands and Highlands, Ferguson made a name for himself writing philosophical history, an early precursor to sociology. In his famous work, An Essay on The History of Civil Society, Ferguson explained how civilization is refined over many generations as society evolves to deal with ever-increasing complexity.

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The Forgotten Abolitionist: The Black Revolutionary, Industrialist, and Abolitionist James Forten Feb 27, 2024

Despite his upbringing in poverty and vicious racial discrimination, the black freeman James Forten rose to become one of the foremost sailmakers in Philadelphia and a crucial voice in the abolition of slavery. Though largely forgotten today, Forten defied the racial stereotypes of his day and became a symbol of black achievement in the new nation of America.

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Liberty's Forgotten Man: William Graham Sumner Jan 30, 2024

This month, we examine the often-overlooked legacy of William Graham Sumner, a 19th-century sociologist, economist, and political thinker. Despite his pivotal role in establishing sociology as a discipline at Yale, Sumner's contributions have been overshadowed, partly due to his association with Herbert Spencer, who has been incorrectly labeled a social Darwinist. The episode delves into Sumner's life ideas, covering his critique of imperialism, the Forgotten Man, and the phenomenon of concentrated benefits and diffuse costs.

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Live like a Libertarian: Karl Hess Dec 20, 2023

Renowned for his larger-than-life character, Karl Hess started as a conservative but slowly shifted away from the Republican party, turning towards the New Left. Eventually seeing the contradictions of both the right and the left, Hess became an anarchist without hyphens.

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Citizen Jane: Jane Jacobs Nov 15, 2023

Jane Jacobs revolutionized the study of cities. She did not see them as merely areas of high population densities, but as huge laboratories for experimentation making cities the flash points of the history of human progress. Her intellectual career was spent checking the hubris of government officials.

Further Reading:

A City Cannot Be a Work of Art: Learning Economics and Social Theory From Jane Jacobs by Sanford Ikeda

More articles and podcasts from Libertarianism.org:

The Rise of Free Cities: Guizot's Seventh Lecture

The Harlem Renaissance: Black Cultural Innovation Unleashed

Immanuel Kant on Spontaneous Order

Interview with Chelsea Follett – The Liberty Exchange

The Ethics Of Progress – Building Tomorrow

Why More People Means More Wealth – Free Thoughts

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A Monument to Freedom of Speech: Havel's Place Oct 02, 2023

Celebrating the tenth anniversary of Havel's Place in Georgetown, an episode dedicated to the dissidents of Czechoslovakia responsible for the Velvet Revolution in 1989, overthrowing the brutal Communist regime without violence or bloodshed.

Find out more at Libertarianism.org

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Coming Soon: The Liberty Exchange Oct 02, 2023

Coming soon, a brand new podcast from Libertarianism.org...

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Why Study History? Jun 30, 2022

A special 50th episode of Portraits about why a layperson should study history.

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The Highly Visible Hand: Richard Cantillon May 18, 2022

Despite his obscurity today, the French Irish economist Richard Cantillon was the first person to put forward a theory of the entrepreneur in the market economy.

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The Most Popular Economist: Henry George May 05, 2022

In 1879, Henry George wrote Progress and Poverty, still one of the bestselling economics books of all time; in it, he argued for the abolition of all kinds of taxes but one.

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A Feminist before Feminism: Marie De Gournay Apr 07, 2022

Marie De Gournay’s “The Equality of Men and Women” is one of the first books to use equality to define the relationships between the sexes.

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An Enlightened Entrepreneur: Josiah Wedgwood Mar 24, 2022

Though born into obscurity, Josiah Wedgwood would become a household name across the European continent over the course of his life, representing refinement and taste.

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The Father of Indian Economics: Kautilya Mar 10, 2022

The ancient Indian writer Kautilya had more knowledge of economic affairs than any thinker for over a thousand years.

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The Liberal Hero of the Philippines: José Rizal Feb 24, 2022

The life of the subversive novelist José Rizal proves that sometimes the pen really is mightier than the sword.

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The First Japanese Classical Liberal: Itagaki Taisuke Feb 10, 2022

Born into a middle-ranking samurai family and a volatile political scene, Itagaki Taisuke would become one of the most influential figures in Japanese history. His early exposure to western ideas of liberalism led him to become a fierce advocate of constitutional government. He became the leader of the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, which later developed into Japan's first-ever political party, the Liberal Party.

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Portraits Winter Break Nov 04, 2021

We are taking a holiday break on the Portraits of Liberty Podcast. Look for new episodes from us come the New Year. In the meantime, be sure to check out our catalog of previous episodes.

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The Founder of Many Disciplines: Ibn Khaldun Oct 21, 2021

Four hundred before Adam Smith wrote the Wealth of Nations, the 14th-century Andalusian statesman and scholar Ibn Khaldun discussed the division of labor, the benefits of trade, and the optimal rate of taxation. Today, historians consider Ibn Khaldun's work as the precursor to the disciplines o economics, historiography, and sociology.

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The Colossus of Independence: John Adams (with C. Bradley Thompson) Oct 07, 2021

Despite being the first-ever vice president and second president, until very recently, John Adams was ignored by historians in favor of figures like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin. But Adams was one of the practical and philosophical powerhouses of the American Revolution. Without the lifelong dedication of Adams, it is arguable the American Revolution might never have succeeded. C. Bradley Thompson joins Portraits to vindicate why Adams deserves a place amongst the greats of American history.

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Names Change but Dictators Remain: Luis Cabrera Lobato(with Luis Felipe Barrón Córdova) Sep 23, 2021

Beginning life as the son of a baker, Luis Cabrera Lobato rose to prominence as a lawyer and became one of the sharpest intellects of the Mexican Revolution. At the time, he was Mexico's foremost constitutional. Luis noticed that without the restraint of the law, names change, but dictators remain.

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Poet Turned President: Václav Havel Sep 09, 2021

Intellectual, poet, and playwright Václav Havel began life on the fringes of Communist Czechoslovakia. Alongside fellow dissidents, Václav played a vital role in the Velvet Revolution, peacefully toppling the communist state and becoming the first president of the newly founded country. Today he is remembered for his moral integrity and biting critique of the spiritual oppression inherent in the communist system.

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A Martyr for Religious Freedom: Mary Dyer (with Paul Matzko) Aug 26, 2021

Mary Dyer left England to pursue her religious beliefs without persecution in the New World. However, once she arrived, she quickly realized the hypocrisy of the Puritan authorities, who persecuted her, even fashioning her tragic miscarriage as a "monstrous birth" in order to discredit her. Her execution, and that of many religious dissidents like her, carved out the space for the kind of religious freedom we so often take for granted today.

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Apostle of Cuban Independence: José Martí Aug 12, 2021

Born in Havana in 1853, José Martí witnessed the horrors of slavery at a young age and dedicated his life to fighting against imperialism and racism. Martí many things, a poet, a philosopher, journalist, professor, but above all else a patriot to Cuba. He was an anti-racist and anti-colonial thinker who criticized any form of oppression. Though he failed in his efforts to gain independence for Cuba, Martí has become a heroic figure for liberty in Latin America.

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(Re-Release): Cicero: An Ancestor of Liberalism Jul 29, 2021

Today Cicero is often read-only by classical scholars and reluctant students which is a great shame because his life and philosophy reflect a sort of proto-liberalism that came to influence a wide variety of thinkers such as John Adams, John Locke, Adam Smith, Voltaire, and Montesquieu. His life and works have echoed throughout the western tradition of political philosophy.

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Early Arguments for Economic Liberty: The De La Court Brothers Jul 15, 2021

Unlike their monarchical neighbors, the 17th-century Dutch Republic was a tolerant capitalist society amid a Golden Age of exploration, commerce, and science. The most outstanding defenders of this out of place, yet highly successful republic were the De La Court brothers, two radical writers who become precursors to the most radical elements of Enlightenment thought in favor of commerce, toleration, and above all else, liberty.

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Resisting the Nazis: Sophie Scholl Jul 01, 2021

Born in Germany in the first half of the 20th-century, Sophie Scholl witnessed the rise of the Nazi party and state throughout her childhood. By the time she was a student at the University of Munich, she could not stand idly by as the Nazi war machine raged. Scholl joined the peaceful activist group known as the White Rose and tried to shine a light on Nazi Germany's evil crimes. For her activism, she paid the ultimate price.

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A Forgotten American Hero: Roger Williams Jun 17, 2021

Born in England while Puritans were persecuted, Williams hopped aboard a ship to America in an attempt to find a place where freedom of religion was a guaranteed right. Unable to find a home free of religious persecution, he founded his own colony, now known as Rhode Island, one of the first places ever to establish absolute freedom of religion with no ifs or buts.

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The Liberal Ideas of Ibn Rushd (with Mustafa Aykol) Jun 03, 2021

Mustafa Akyol joins Portraits of Liberty to discuss the life and thought of the famous Andalusian polymath Ibn Rushd. Born during what is called the Golden Age of Islam, Ibn Rushd was one of the earliest thinkers in the Middle East to articulate what would later become the core values of liberalism. His influence stretched into the western world, where his translations of Aristotle caused an intellectual renaissance.

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When Ireland was Stateless (with Kevin Flanagan) May 20, 2021

A lot of people talk about abolishing the state, but can it be done? Often the status quo says no. Founder of the Brehon Law Academy, Kevin Flanagan, disagrees and explains that Ireland was a stateless society for hundreds if not thousands of years.

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The First Chinese Constitutionalist: Huang Zongxi May 06, 2021

After the death of his father and the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Huang Zongxi began to contemplate how things had collapsed. He began to think that governments were the problem. Those in power only served themselves. Huang proposed his solution to the chaos in his book Waiting for the Dawn, where he argued for a government that served the people and protected property. The government's power would be limited and kept in check to prevent tyranny from arising.

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A Champion of Civil Liberties: John Lilburne Apr 22, 2021

Living in the 17th-century, John Lilburne )or as he was more commonly known Freeborn John) was imprisoned at a young age for distributing a banned book. From this point on through the English Civil Wars and the turbulent days of the English republic, Lilburne was a fierce advocate of civil liberties, what he called the rights of freeborn men. He inspired the Leveller movement and colonial governments in America that followed his advice on the importance of free speech and the right to silence.

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The Enemy of Tyranny: Cato the Younger Apr 08, 2021

Born into the tumultuous final days of the Roman Republic, Cato made a name for himself as an honest, humble, and dedicated politician. Cato fought against the tyranny of Julius Caesar. Though Cato was on the losing side, his character and conduct became legendary, especially amongst the Founding Fathers.

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Protector of the Native Americans: Bartolomé de las Casas Mar 25, 2021

Bartolomé de las Casas was only a child in 1493 when Christopher Columbus returned from the New World and passed by his hometown of Seville. Seeing the riches up for grabs, Las Casas traveled to the New World and became a wealthy landowner with multiple slaves. But through a series of revelations, Las Casas came to realize the evil of slavery and conquest. He dedicated the rest of his life to becoming one of the earliest advocates of human rights to atone for his past sins.

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Locofocos, The Radical Classical Liberals Mar 11, 2021

Joined by leading expert Anthony Comenga from the Institute for Humane Studies, in this episode, we discuss the Locofoco movement. Active from 1820-1870, the Locofocos represent a radical version of classical liberalism that attacks corporate privileges and monopolistic laws. Though often forgotten, they are a unique voice in the history of classical liberalism.

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Saving Classical Liberalism: Isabel Paterson Feb 25, 2021

In the early 20th-century liberal ideas were in danger of becoming extinct with the rise of extreme ideologies such as fascism and communism in Europe and the massively expanding state of the New Deal era. Perturbed by the ever-increasing government, Isabel Paterson wrote her magnum Opus God of the Machine about how free and creative individuals bring about progress, not the state.

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Nuns Against the State: Arcangela Tarabotti Feb 11, 2021

In the 17th-century, many young noble girls were forced into nun convents by their fathers. In 1620 Arcangela Tarabotti was forced to stay in a convent until the day she died. Tarabotti dedicated herself to writing against the mistreatment of women and argued against the misogyny of her day. She believed women, like men, possessed free will, the God-given gift of choice. Because of this, no man has the right to dictate how women live.

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Where Buddhism & Libertarianism Intersect (with Aaron Ross Powell) Jan 28, 2021

Discussions of Buddhism typically revolve around lofty topics like reincarnation and the nature of the self. Policy debates about tax rates and international trade seem to be outside of the Buddhist focus. Aaron Ross Powell joins to discuss how the ethical principles of Buddhism apply to the world of politics.

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Keep Government Simple: Mozi Jan 14, 2021

Writing during the calamitous Warring States period of Chinese history, Mozi was unlike any of his contemporaries. He was ardently opposed to wasteful government spending, loathed aggressive foreign wars, and believed government positions should be held by the best for the job, not just those with familial and political connections. His political philosophy can be characterized as the first-ever form of consequentialism.

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(Re-Release): Forgotten Libertarians Dec 31, 2020

For too long history was just the study of great men, but with the rise of intellectual history we have focused more on how people have changed their ideas over time. In another sense, studying history is about studying the struggle for power. The host of Portraits of Liberty, Paul Meany, joins the show to highlight historical thinkers who may not have been strictly libertarian, but argued for a freer world. Portraits of Liberty celebrates a broader historical libertarianism.

What is valuable about studying intellectual history? Why do certain philosophers get completely forgotten? What is the difference between tradition and truth?

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A Lover of Individualism: Zora Neale Hurston Dec 17, 2020

Growing up in a black self-governing town, Zora realized the myth of race and that black Americans were just as capable citizens as their white counterparts. Battling through poverty and discrimination, Zora became one of the foremost figures of the Harlem Renaissance, but unlike her fellow intellectuals, she loathed any form of socialism or collectivism, preferring the greater gift of individualism instead.

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The Mother of Libertarianism: Rose Wilder Lane Dec 03, 2020

At it's lowest point in the early 20th-century, classical liberal ideas were in full retreat with the advent of extensive state interference in the economy. Rose Wilder Lane reignited a passion for liberal ideas in her numerous columns alongside her master work The Discovery of Freedom.

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Freedom in Ancient China: Mencius Nov 19, 2020

Few philosophy curricula today cover the writings of eastern philosophers. Even though his teachings are over two millennia old, the work of Mencius covers many liberal themes. Mencius argued for a state which promoted both virtue and prosperity through a policy of non-interference. He staunchly opposed wars aimed at expanding state power and argued in favor of deposing rulers who did not fulfill their obligations.

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Liberty, Free Speech, and Killing Tyrants: John of Salisbury Nov 05, 2020

The 12th-century clergyman John of Salisbury has been relegated to obscurity today. This is a great shame because his treatise on politics entitled Policraticus despite it's medieval trappings articulates a love of freedom, a respect for free speech and most controversially, discussions of when it is morally permissible to kill a tyrant.

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Cicero: An Ancestor of Liberalism Oct 08, 2020

Today Cicero is often read-only by classical scholars and reluctant students which is a great shame because his life and philosophy reflect a sort of proto-liberalism that came to influence a wide variety of thinkers such as John Adams, John Locke, Adam Smith, Voltaire, and Montesquieu. His life and works have echoed throughout the western tradition of political philosophy.

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Anders Chydenius Sep 24, 2020

Coming from the humble position of a rural clergy member, the Swedish Anders Chydenius shocked his contemporaries with his radical arguments in favour of the free market and a minimal state. Anders dedicated his life to defending the economic liberty of the least represented in society. During his life, he repealed backward economic policies, protected religious minorities' rights, and played a crucial role in establishing the principle of free speech in law.

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The English Cato: Algernon Sidney Sep 10, 2020

In 17th-century England, where the divine right of kings was being questioned, Algernon Sidney was one of the most ardent republicans who detested unchecked monarchical power. He spent his life fighting for a political order that kept those in power accountable to the people. Due to his stubborn sense of honor and a lifetime of rebellion against tyranny, Algernon became a household name during the American Revolution.

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John Stuart Mill's Co-author Harriet Taylor Mill Aug 27, 2020

John Stuart Mill is one of the most influential liberal philosophers who ever lived. But Mill did not write alone, through his letters and autobiography he extensively praised his wife Harriet Taylor Mill who he considered an equal partner and co-author. This episode covers Harriets often forgotten importance in the history of liberalism.

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The Apostle of Free Trade: Richard Cobden Aug 13, 2020

Despite his humble origins as the son of a failed farmer, Cobden became a celebrity within his life as both a politician and activist. Cobden spent much of his career attacking the Corn Laws, a set of restrictive policies that dramatically increased the price of food in Britain. But an often overlooked aspect of Cobden's career is his staunch opposition to British wars abroad. He saw no benefit for Britain in meddling in the affairs of other nations.

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Frédéric Bastiat Jul 30, 2020

Bastiat began his foray into politics as an advocate of the free market, but he quickly realized that the principles of freedom ought to be applied to all aspects of life. Bastiat believed the state was often used as a weapon by some against others and so the solution was to limit the state radically. Today, Bastiat is rightly remembered for his entertaining, witty, and memorable writings, which take complicated concepts and make them accessible to a person of any background.

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The African Enlightenment Jul 16, 2020

The conventional narrative is that Enlightenment values are uniquely Western values. But this narrative becomes questionable when we look at Zera Yacob, an Ethiopian philosopher who predated the Enlightenment but came to many philosophical views that would form the core of Enlightenment values. Zera's methodology closely resembles Rene Descartes and comes to conclusions that echo John Locke's theory of natural law and religious toleration. In some ways, Zera even surpasses his western counterparts with a firm commitment to anti-racism and anti-sexist attitudes.

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Libertarianism at School: Maria Montessori Jul 02, 2020

From a young age, Maria Montessori defied the conventions and standards of her time studying engineering a field dominated by men and moving on to medicine, becoming the first degreed female physician in Italy. Through her work in medicine treating children, Maria began to study the education of children. She realized that the standard methods of educating children were failing abysmally. She created her own system, which treated children as spontaneous, creative, and, most importantly, autonomous individuals. The end goal education for Maria was making a child independent and self-sufficient. Her methods were highly effective, and she became a figure of international renown establishing schools across the globe throughout her busy internationally-focused life.

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Dismantling the State with Étienne De La Boétie Jun 18, 2020

While in college at the young age of eighteen, Étienne De La Boétie wrote a Discourse on Voluntary Servitude a book which attempted to explain why people obey tyrants despite their better judgement. Étienne explains how tyranny endures through the powers of habit, trickery, and patronage. But by far, Étienne’s most unique view is that the state must be dismantled by simple acts of mass civil disobedience reminding rulers we can always choose not to obey.

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The Founding Feminist Mary Wollstonecraft Jun 04, 2020

Mary Wollstonecraft had a tough life, her father was an abusive drunk and her families’ economic fortunes were ever worsening. Tired of the oppressive nature of home life Mary left and attempted to become an independent woman something that was extremely uncommon in the 18th-century. Despite the challenges in here way Mary became a respected public intellectual in her day writing two Vindications of the rights of men and women in which she discusses how to achieve a more equal and virtuous society that takes into account both men and women’s rights and progress.

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Auberon Herbert and Voluntaryism May 21, 2020

Auberon Herbert was born into a wealthy English aristocratic family and started his political career. But after witnessing the horrors of war through Europe and America and witnessing the incompetence of parliament, he lost faith in the abilities of the state. Inspired by the writing of Herbert Spencer Auberon set out to articulate a political philosophy emphasizing the importance of consent and the voluntary state, which is strictly limited to the protection of our natural and self-evident rights.

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Taking the King to Court, John Cooke May 07, 2020

Despite being born into poverty John Cooke attained an education as a lawyer. While practicing law he realized the unfairness of the current legal system and wrote about how it ought to be reformed to be a system where a crime is a crime no matter who commits it. After the English Civil War King Charles I was put on trial for his heinous crimes, Cooke was the only lawyer in London brave enough to prosecute the king of the country. Despite his obscurity, John Cooke was a remarkable figure who ultimately led to way in articulating why even heads of state should be answerable to the law.

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Rehabilitating Democracy, George Grote Apr 23, 2020

For a long time, the word democracy was synonymous with anarchy due to the horror stories of ancient Athenian democracy. The self-taught polymath and enthusiastic democrat George Grote rehabilitated democracy by arguing that Athens, the birthplace of democracy, was a vibrant and liberal society. Grote was no mere academic; he was also on the frontline for the fight for democratic rights such as the secret ballot and a more inclusive voting system.

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Separating the Church and State, Marsilius of Padua Apr 09, 2020

Discussions of monarchy and hierarchy usually dominate medieval political thought. The 14-century thinker Marsilius of Padua breaks with his contemporaries arguing the church and state should be separate entities and that laws should be based on the consent and common good of all. Despite being a medieval mind, Marsilius has a distinctly modern voice.

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Poullain and Equality Mar 26, 2020

Despite his obscurity, François Poullain de la Barre is a philosopher who thought beyond the constraints of his time. In 17th-century France Poullain articulated a case for gender equality. His proposal was so radical few took it seriously at the time. Poullain is still relevant today for his analysis of how oppression is “justified” and how to unlearn prejudices.

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Beccaria Modernized Criminal Law Mar 12, 2020

Before the 18th-century, European criminal law was unpredictable, repressive, and punitive. Judges had an abundance of discretionary power, and harsh punishments were doled out inconsistently. Cesare Beccaria, in his famous essay On Crimes and Punishment articulated a system of law based upon deterring crimes and using punishment only when it was necessary to detain current criminals and deter future offenders. To this end, he was against the death penalty, which he believed was counter-productive and barbaric. Following its publication in 1764, On Crimes and Punishments became not only popular reading, but also a catalyst for reform in Europe, Russia, and America.

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Cato's Letters Mar 12, 2020

Between 1720-1723 in England, a popular weekly pamphlet became a thorn in the government's side for viciously criticizing the corruption and greed of politicians. This pamphlet was known as Cato's Letters, written by John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon consisted of over a hundred "letters" on topics such as freedom of speech, religious toleration, the benefits of liberty, and the right to resist tyrannical governments. Their writings became extremely popular not only in England but also in America. Throughout the American Revolution Cato's Letters were quoted as an esteemed authority of the nature of freedom and the nightmare of tyranny.

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The First Western Feminist Mar 12, 2020

Medieval feminism sounds like an oxymoron. The medieval ages inherited a caustic tradition of misogyny from the ancient world. The 15th-century writer Christine de Pisan argued in her work The City of Ladies that the ideas of both her predecessors and contemporaries were delusional. Pisan explained the inherent equality between men and women. For Pisan, both sexes had a capacity for virtue, and both ought to be educated in the same manner.

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