Show notes
CardioNerds co-founder Dan Ambinder joins Dr. Lefan He, Dr. Sina Salehi Omran, and Dr. Neil Gupta from the University of Rochester Cardiovascular Disease Fellowship Program for a day sailing on Lake Ontario. Expert commentary is provided by Dr. Jeffrey Bruckel, and CV Fellowship Program Director Dr. Burr Hall shares insights on the University of Rochester fellowship. The episode audio was edited by CardioNerds intern Dr. Atefeh Ghorbanzadeh. They discuss the following case involving a patient with papillary muscle rupture.
This is a 63-year-old man with hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and active tobacco smoking who presented with acute dyspnea. He was tachycardic but otherwise initially hemodynamically stable. The physical exam demonstrated warm extremities with no murmurs or peripheral edema. Chest X-ray revealed diffuse pulmonary edema, and the ECG showed sinus tachycardia with T-wave inversions in the inferior leads. A bedside echocardiogram revealed a flail anterior mitral valve leaflet. The patient was taken for cardiac catheterization that revealed nonobstructive mid-RCA atheroma with a distal RCA occlusion, which was felt to reflect embolic occlusion from recanalized plaque. PCI was not performed. Right heart catheterization then demonstrated a low cardiac index as well as elevated PCWP and PA pressures. An intra-aortic balloon pump was placed at that time. A TEE was performed soon after which showed the posteromedial papillary muscle was ruptured with flail segments of the anterior mitral leaflet as well as severe posteriorly directed mitral regurgitation. The patient ultimately underwent a successful tissue mitral valve replacement and CABG.
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Pearls - A Case of Papillary Muscle Rupture
Most cases of papillary muscle rupture demonstrate only small areas of ischemia with preserved ventricular function, thus causing high shear force on the ischemic papillary muscle.
The posteromedial papillary muscle has a single blood supply from the posterior descending artery, while the anterolateral papillary muscle has a dual blood supply from the LAD and the circumflex. Therefore, the posteromedial papillary muscle is more vulnerable to ischemia and, hence, rupture.
A murmur may be absent in cases of papillary muscle rupture due to the rapid equalization of left atrial and left ventricular pressures caused by the acuteness of the severe MR. Papillary muscle rupture should always be on the differential for acute dyspnea when ACS is suspected.
While mostly associated with STEMIs, mechanical complications of acute myocardial infarctions can also occur after NSTEMIs. Always auscultate patients carefully after a myocardial infarction!
When evaluating patients with chest pain presenting with acute or rapidly progressive heart failure and a hypercontractile LVEF should raise suspicion for mechanical complications of MI.
Once a papillary muscle rupture is diagnosed, cardiac surgery should be immediately contacted. Temporizing measures prior to surgery include positive pressure ventilation, IV nitroglycerin/nitroprusside, and temporary mechanical circulatory support.
Notes - A Case of Papillary Muscle Rupture
What is the clinical presentation of acute mitral regurgitation from papillary muscle rupture?
Patients typically present 3-5 days after a transmural infarct. Roughly half of these patients present with pulmonary edema that may quickly progress to cardiogenic shock.
Most cases are associated with STEMIs, but papillary muscle rupture is also possible with an NSTEMI.
The classic murmur is a mid-, late-, or holosystolic murmur. However, due to the rapid equalization of pressures between the LA and LV, many patients may not present with a murmur!
What is the pathophysiology of papillary muscle rupture?
The most common etiology is acute occlusion of the RCA causing infarct of the posteromedial papillary muscle, which then leads to a partial or complete tear 2-7 days later.
The posteromedial papillary muscle has a single blood supply from the posterior descending artery, while the anterolateral papillary muscle has a dual blood supply from the LAD and the circumflex. Therefore, the posteromedial papillary muscle is more vulnerable to ischemia and, hence, rupture.
What are the echocardiographic features of acute mitral regurgitation?
Typically, acute mitral regurgitation is caused by acute insult to the mitral valve or mitral valve apparatus. Examples include endocarditis with leaflet perforation, acute flail leaflet in the setting of mitral valve prolapse, and infarct-related papillary muscle rupture. Also, the LVEF can be hypercontractile.
Left ventricular and left atrial dimensions tend to be normal in acute MR as the heart has not had time to remodel. This also leads to rapid equalization of the LV-LA pressure during systole, blunting both the Doppler signal and the audible murmur which may under-appreciate acute severe mitral regurgitation.
Severe mitral regurgitation typically has a regurgitant volume of ≥60 mL or a regurgitant fraction of at least 50%. Additionally, an effective regurgitant orifice area of 0.4 cm^2 is typically indicative of severe mitral regurgitation. A complete multiparametric assessment is more important than any single parameter.
Systolic flow reversal in the pulmonary veins is pathognomonic for severe mitral regurgitation. This may not be apparent in all pulmonary veins if the MR is eccentric, as is usually the case of papillary muscle or acute leaflet flail.
How should acute mitral regurgitation due to papillary muscle rupture be managed?
Afterload reduction may help, but this may be limited by hypotension in the acute setting.
Temporary mechanical circulatory support may be necessary, often with an intra-aortic balloon pump which can be effective in improving forward flow.
The ultimate and definitive treatment is urgent cardiac surgery along with concomitant bypass grafting as appropriate. Transcatheter edge-to-edge repair may be considered sparingly when surgery is deemed very high risk.
What are the other mechanical complications of acute myocardial infarction?
Ventricular septal rupture typically occur 3-5 days after an infarct but there is a bimodal distribution. The presentation can vary from an isolated systolic murmur all the way to cardiogenic shock. Echocardiography will show a left to right shunt and right heart cath will show a step-up in oxygenation between the RA and PA as well as an elevated Qp/Qs. VSRs require urgent surgical or percutaneous repair.
Ventricular free wall rupture also occurs 3-5 days after an infarct and presents with elevated jugular venous distension, muffled heart sounds, and pulsus paradoxus. As blood irritates the pericardium, the patient’s ECG can show new ST-elevations. Management is emergent surgery.
Pseudoaneurysms present weeks to years after an infarct. These occur when a cardiac rupture is contained by pericardial adhesions and typically involve the inferior or lateral walls. Patients may be asymptomatic, but once diagnosed, pseudoaneurysms should be urgently repaired, lest they expand or become unstable.
References
Damluji AA, van Diepen S, Katz JN, Menon V, Tamis-Holland JE, Bakitas M, Cohen MG, Balsam LB, Chikwe J; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; and Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing. Mechanical complications of acute myocardial infarction: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2021;144:e16–e35. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000985
Chang C et al. Transcatheter Edge-to-Edge Repair for Acute Mitral Regurgitation due to Postinfarction Papillary Muscle Rupture. JSCAI (2022) 100431.
Kilic A et al. Mitral Valve Surgery for Papillary Muscle Rupture: Outcomes in 1342 Patients From The Society of Thoracic Surgeons Database. The Annals of Thoracic Surgery Volume 110, Issue 6, December 2020, Pages 1975-1981
van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM, Henry TD, Jacobs AK, Kapur NK, Kilic A, Menon V, Ohman EM, Sweitzer NK, Thiele H, Washam JB, Cohen MG; on behalf of the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research; and Mission: Lifeline. Contemporary management of cardiogenic shock: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017;136:e232–e268. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000525
Zoghbi, W. A., Adams, D., Bonow, R. O., Enriquez-Sarano, M., Foster, E., Grayburn, P. A., Hahn, R. T., Han, Y., Hung, J., Lang, R. M., Little, S. H., Shah, D. J., Shernan, S., Thavendiranathan, P., Thomas, J. D., & Weissman, N. J. (2017). Recommendations for noninvasive evaluation of native valvular regurgitation. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography, 30(4), 303–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echo.2017.01.007
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