The Rx Bricks Podcast

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Diabetes Melllitus: Foundations and Frameworks Apr 23, 2024

Show notes

Blood glucose is proof that you can have too much of a good thing. While glucose serves a critical role as fuel for many of our bodily functions, it must remain in a very tightly controlled range. If the level goes too low, you can fall into a coma. If glucose is too high, damage to tissues throughout the body can occur. When blood glucose is consistently too high and the mechanisms that return it to the normal range fail, this is called diabetes mellitus. Nearly 10% of the US population has a form of diabetes, so it is critical that physicians understand the disease and be prepared to care for patients with the diagnosis.

Diabetes mellitus is a condition characterized by a lack of insulin-mediated blood glucose control. Insulin is a hormone released by the pancreatic β cells in the islets of Langerhans, which make up the endocrine portion of the pancreas.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Define type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Compare and contrast the pathophysiology of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Compare and contrast the clinical presentation of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Compare and contrast diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome as complications of diabetes mellitus.
Describe laboratory tests that help distinguish between type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Compare and contrast management principles for type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

You can also check out the original brick on Diabetes Mellitus: Foundations and Frameworks from our Endocrine collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

You will get 5 days of full access to our Rx360+ program, including nearly 800 Rx Bricks. After the 5-day period, you will still be able to access over 150 free bricks, including the entire collections for General Microbiology and Cellular and Molecular Biology.

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Cholelithiasis and Cholecystitis Apr 16, 2024

Show notes

Gallstones are the hardened precipitates—“stones”—of the substrates found in bile. The liver makes bile to help digest fats, and the bile is stored in the gallbladder. When there is an excess of a particular substance in the bile (eg, cholesterol or unconjugated bilirubin), gallstones form in the gallbladder.

Gallstones can be as small as a grain of sand, as large as a golf ball, or any size in between. Gallstones are very common and usually do not cause any symptoms. But not all gallstones stay in the gallbladder.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Define, compare, and contrast cholelithiasis, cholangitis, choledocholithiasis, and cholecystitis, listing the most common causes of each.
Describe the structure and pathogenesis of cholesterol and pigment gallstones.
List the major risk factors for development of gallstones, describe the typical clinical course, and list the potential complications.
Distinguish acute and chronic cholecystitis, and describe the clinical presentation, signs, and lab abnormalities.
Describe the treatment of gallstones and acute cholecystitis.

You can also check out the original brick on Cholelithiasis and Cholecystitis from our Gastrointestinal collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Pulmonary Hypertension Apr 09, 2024

Show notes

Normal blood pressure keeps us alive. It’s the force that moves blood throughout our circulatory system, ensuring that oxygen and nutrients reach our organs and tissues and that waste products are eliminated. When we hear the word hypertension—high blood pressure—we know this describes the blood flow exerting too much force against blood vessel walls. Pulmonary hypertension describes high blood pressure in the vessels of the lung. Specifically, pulmonary hypertension is an elevated mean arterial pressure (≥20 mm Hg at rest) of the vessels between the heart and the lung.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Define pulmonary hypertension and compare with pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Describe the clinical presentation and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension, including results from electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, and heart catheterization. Explain how pulmonary hypertension leads to right-sided heart failure.
Describe how pulmonary vascular resistance affects pulmonary arterial pressure. List common etiologies of pulmonary hypertension, differentiating between cardiac and pulmonary causes. List the most common cause of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
Describe the treatment of pulmonary hypertension.

You can also check out the original brick on Pulmonary Hypertension from our Respiratory collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Macroscopic Skin Lesions Mar 12, 2024

Show notes

Macroscopic Skin Lesions

A thorough skin examination should be performed annually to assess for new or changing macroscopic skin lesions. It is critically important to be able to identify and describe normal and abnormal skin and to note your findings carefully, because a change in an existing skin lesion is the most common sign of skin cancer, including deadly ones like melanoma. In this discussion, we will describe the specific ways in which you document skin lesions, using a vocabulary that other clinicians will understand.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Explain the importance of physical examination of the skin.
Describe skin lesions, explaining and illustrating each of the following: size, type (eg, vesicle, bulla), color, configuration (eg, annular, targetoid, discoid), arrangement (eg, solitary, grouped, linear, reticular), and distribution and location.

You can also check out the original brick on Macroscopic Skin Lesions from our Musculoskeletal, Skin, and Connective Tissue collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com.

You will get 5 days of full access to our Rx360+ program, including Step 1 Qmax, Flash Facts, Express Videos, and nearly 800 Rx Bricks. After the 5-day period, you will still be able to access over 150 free bricks, including the entire collections for General Microbiology and Cellular and Molecular Biology.

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Acute Inflammation Feb 27, 2024

Show notes

Have you ever cut your finger, bumped your head, or fallen and scraped your knee? While you were cursing your clumsiness or bad luck, your body got straight to work healing the injury, relying on the wondrous process of acute inflammation. Shortly after your injury, you most likely experienced some or all of the cardinal signs of acute inflammation: pain (dolor), redness(rubor), heat(calor),and swelling(tumor).

There are two types of inflammation: acute and chronic. Acute inflammation is an essential part of the body’s defense system and generally lasts a few days. Chronic inflammation (discussed in detail in another brick) involves an ongoing low-level inflammation that lasts for weeks, months, or even years. Unlike acute inflammation, chronic inflammation is not beneficial; it leads to tissue damage and is linked to the development of many types of chronic disease, including diabetes, cancer, and a range of autoimmune disorders.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Describe the three roles of inflammation.
Identify the cells of innate immunity involved in acute inflammation and the timeline of when each cell type is involved.
Describe the four reactions of blood vessels in acute inflammation.
Describe leukocyte recruitment to sites of inflammation.
Explain how these processes result in the general clinical manifestations of acute inflammation.
Provide specific examples of acute inflammation.
Describe the utility of acute-phase reactants as a marker of inflammation: erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C-reactive protein, ferritin, fibrinogen (all increased with inflammation—positive markers).

You can also check out the original brick on Acute Inflammation from our General Pathology collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes Feb 20, 2024

Show notes

Multiple endocrine neoplasias are familial syndromes of endocrine tumors occurring in endocrine organs throughout the body. Despite its acronym, the risk for acquiring MEN is about the same in men and women and also across geographic and racial and ethnic groups. These are rare syndromes, affecting about 1 in 30,000 people. Genetic mutations cause the MEN syndromes, which are then inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern. This means several members of the same family are often affected; an affected parent has a 50% chance of passing down the disease to his or her children. Unlike cancers without a hereditary basis, tumors associated with MEN often occur in younger patients (under age 40 years) and affect multiple organ systems all at once, making them particularly troublesome. Generally, tumors may arise in the pituitary gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, pancreas, thyroid, or adrenal glands (Figure 1). The three major types of multiple endocrine neoplasia are MEN1, MEN2A, and MEN2B, and each has a characteristic picture of endocrine or neurologic disorders and tumors.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Define multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN), and list the three MEN syndromes.
Compare and contrast the main clinical features of MEN1, MEN2A, and MEN2B.
Describe the genetic defects that cause MEN1, MEN2A, and MEN2B.
Briefly describe the management of the MEN syndromes.

You can also check out the original brick on Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia from our Endocrine collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Myocarditis Feb 13, 2024

Show notes

Myocarditis is the inflammation of the heart muscle. This muscle is the middle layer of the heart, formally called the myocardium, hence the name myocarditis (the -itis suffix indicates inflammation). Inflammation of the myocardium can be caused by a variety of etiologies, from infection to drugs. If severe enough, inflammation can lead to necrosis and cardiomyocyte death. This is dangerous because the heart is considered permanent tissue. This means there is limited regenerative potential, so tissue loss is essentially permanent. As part of the healing process, myocardial tissue is replaced by a fibrous scar to fill the defect. But because the fibrous scar has no contractile properties, it diminishes the heart’s strength. If severe enough, this damage can even cause heart failure.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Define myocarditis.
List the most common viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic causes of myocarditis, and describe the general mechanism for how these agents damage the myocardium.
List noninfectious causes of myocarditis, and describe the general mechanism for how the myocardium is damaged in these conditions.
Describe the characteristic microscopic features of acute infectious myocarditis.
Describe the typical presentation, clinical spectrum, and prognosis of myocarditis.

You can also check out the original brick on Myocarditis from our Cardiovascular collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Principles of Learning Feb 06, 2024

Show notes

Learning is traditionally defined as acquiring knowledge through study, experience, or being taught. In psychology, it is often defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that results from experience. Learning is an ongoing process; we continue learning throughout our entire lives.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Name and briefly describe the three major theories of learning.
Define classical conditioning, including unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response.
Define operant conditioning and differentiate between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.
Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning.
Describe examples of social learning theory.

You can also check out the original brick on Principles of Learning from our Psychiatry collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Salmonella and Shigella (Re-release) Jan 30, 2024

Show notes

Salmonella and Shigella speciesare almost made to be confused—two bacterial infections in the Enterobacteriaceae family that are spread by food and dirty conditions, cause gastroenteritis, and start with S! To make matters more confusing, they look similar on microscopy. While they are more common in developing communities, they are also seen in the United States. Here, we will give you the tools to keep these bugs and their presentations straight.

After listening to this AudioBrick, you should be able to:

Differentiate the microscopic and growth characteristics and habitat of Salmonella typhi, Salmonella spp other than S typhi, and Shigella.
Describe the host (risk) factors, mode of transmission, and pathobiology of diseases caused by these organisms.
Describe the clinical manifestations of diseases caused by these organisms.
Discuss concerns of antibiotic resistance related to these organisms.

You can also check out the original brick on Salmonella and Shigella. from our Microbiology collection, which is available for free.

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

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Learn how you can access over 150 of our bricks for FREE: https://usmlerx.wpengine.com/free-bricks/

Inflammatory Disorders of the Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea Jan 09, 2024

Show notes

Looking for more information on this topic? Check out the Inflammatory Disorders of the Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea brick.

Follow USMLE-Rx at: Facebook: www.facebook.com/usmlerx Blog: www.firstaidteam.com Twitter: https://twitter.com/firstaidteam Twitter: https://twitter.com/mesage_hub Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/firstaidteam/ YouTube: www.youtube.com/USMLERX

Learn more about Rx Bricks by signing up for a free USMLE-Rx account: www.usmle-rx.com

You will get 5 days of full access to our Rx360+ program, including over 800 Rx Bricks. After the 5-day period, you will still be able to access over 150 free bricks, including the entire collections for General Microbiology and Cellular and Molecular Biology.

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