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The Jewish community of Moscow in the late 19th century was composed of Russian Jews who were permitted residence outside of the Pale of Settlement. In 1891 the Czarist government reversed its policy of selective integration and about 30,000 Jews were expelled from Moscow. This expulsion was a tragedy for the refugees, and a sense of disillusionment for Russian Jewry at large. Its reverberations were felt in the realm of emigration, radicalization and the rise of Zionism. More broadly, the phenomenon of expulsion itself as a recurring tragedy in Jewish history, is a bit unique in the case of Moscow.
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Although not as well known as some of his contemporaries, Rav Efraim Fishel of Strikov (1745-1825) served in a crucial role during the formative stages of the chassidic movement. Like his father before him he was a student of the Maggid of Mezritch. He later was a pioneer in establishing one of the first formal chassidic courts in Congress or central Poland. As a charismatic holy figure, as well as a rabbinical scholar serving as a communal rabbi, he gained followers, some of whom went on to emerge as some of the greatest leaders of 19th century Polish chassidus. Among his many descendants was Rav Shmuel Abba, who established the Zichlin chassidic dynasty which flourished until its decimation in the Holocaust.
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One of the most influential rabbinical and chassidic leaders of central Poland in the 19th century, Rav Avraham of Chechenov (1784-1875) served as a rabbi of Chechenov for 55 years, while also playing an important role in the development of the chassidic movement in Poland. His descendants founded the prominent Strikov dynasty, among others, and served in crucial roles during challenging times facing Polish Jewry.
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Despite discrimination against Jews under Muslim rule throughout Moroccan Jewish history, there was still an unusual relationship that Jews and Muslims had in Morocco. This was especially true with the native Berbers. From Muslims praying at the graves of Jewish tzadikim, to close business ties, sharing festivities, prayers and other life cycle events, Muslims and Jews in Moroccan Jewish history had an interesting relationship. The seeming downside of this closeness was the prevalence of conversion of Jews to Islam, both forced and even voluntary.
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Reflecting upon the phenomenal growth of the American Yeshiva society in the second half of the 20th century, one tends to focus on the great accomplishments of individual leaders such as Rav Aharon Kotler, Rav Shraga Feivel Mendlowitz, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, the Satmar Rav, institutions such as Torah Umesorah, RIETS, RJJ, BMG and other internal development within American Orthodoxy. However there's a broader narrative, with gradual processes taking place in broader American society which facilitated the growth of yeshivos during this time. Economic, social and demographic changes in the United States in the postwar era, LBJ's Great Society and the Vietnam War draft, are all external factors which facilitated the growth of the American yeshiva community. External factors are often overlooked but are no less important in understanding Jewish history.
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In this final installment of the Kastner train series, the legacy of the Kastner trial is explored in three ways. In a series of interviews in 1957 known as the Sassen documents, Adolf Eichmann described his view of the role that Kastner played in the negotiations. In 1961 famed Hollywood screenwriter and novelist Ben Hecht authored Perfidy, a harsh critique of Kastner and the Zionist leadership. Who was Ben Hecht and what are the limitations of Perfidy. Finally, a broad swath of scholars, historians, historical figures and writers are presented in a sweeping summary of the spectrum of views criticizing and defending Kastner.
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Who were the primary characters involved in the Kastner trial and how did their personal life stories impact the trial proceedings? What did the witnesses at the trial reveal about the Kastner negotiations? What was discussed and what wasn’t discussed about the Holocaust in Hungary at the trial? What was the verdict of the trial? How did the Supreme Court react to the verdict of the lower court? All this and more as we continue to explore the contentious history of the Kastner train and trial.
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Reposted with a new introduction, this episode will serve as a temporary break from the ongoing series on the Kastner train.
On January 1, 1837, a devastating earthquake hit the upper Galilee and southern Lebanon, destroying towns, villages, property and roads, disrupting commerce and claiming the lives of thousands of victims. The ancient and mystical city of Tzfas was essentially destroyed at the epicenter of the earthquake’s damage, with most of its citizens killed, and the remainder being rendered homeless and penniless in the wake of this natural disaster. The traumatic event left a decisive impact on the trajectory of the Old Yishuv, with the wider social, economic and religious ramifications of this displacement being felt for decades. The rise of Yerushalayim with the downfall of Tzfas, messianic tension and subsequent disappointment, the funding apparatus of the Old Yishuv, and many other elements of Jewish life, would be heavily influenced by this one natural disaster which changed the Jewish history of the Holy Land.
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Following the war’s end in 1945, the controversy surrounding Kastner’s wartime activities began to emerge. Some pointed to the fact that he rescued an entire trainload of Jews, while others accused him of failing to warn Hungarian Jewry of the impending deportations to Auschwitz. The Jewish People in general and Israeli society in particular were reeling from the trauma of the Holocaust. The trial involving the story of Kastner and his negotiations takes place in the context of Israeli society of the 1950’s. Two salient features hover in the background across broader society. A traumatized people facing not its murderers but rather alleged Jewish collaborators, and the inter Israeli politics, with many resentful against the Mapai political establishment who were the leaders of the Israeli government during this time. These two undercurrents serve as the backdrop for the unfolding trial, which was instigated by a pamphlet published by Malkiel Grunwald in August 1952 accusing Kastner of Nazi collaboration. The State of Israel sued Grunwald for libel, and the latter retained the legal counsel of a brilliant and talented lawyer named Shmuel Tamir, who came to dominate the subsequent trial proceedings.
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The Satmar Rav, Rav Yoel Teitelbaum, was rescued on the Kastner train. How did this great leader of Hungarian Orthodoxy and chassidic community, who was well known for his vocal opposition to Zionism, receive a place of rescue on the train which was organized by the secular Zionist Aid and Rescue Committee of Budapest? Insights into his inclusion broadens our understanding of how the rescue train story developed. Other famous individuals were rescued on the Kastner train as well. In conclusion it’s worth summarizing the entire story of the negotiations with the SS and the rescue train’s departure from Budapest, through its stay in Bergen-Belsen. Clarifying the chronological sequence of events will provide a good review of the entire train story, so that we can transition to the story of the trial in the next installment.
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